Debunking the Watchtower’s “Torture Stake” Theory: What Justus Lipsius and 1st-Century Archaeology Really Show

One of the defining—but deeply controversial—doctrines taught by Jehovah’s Witnesses is their denial of the traditional Christian teaching that Jesus was crucified on a cross. Instead, they argue He died on a simple upright pole or “torture stake” (stauros in Greek). To support this view, the Watchtower has gone so far as to misquote historical sources—most notably the 16th-century scholar Justus Lipsius—in an effort to rewrite history.

But the evidence, both literary and archaeological, overwhelmingly supports the Christian belief that Jesus died on a cross with a crossbeam. In this expanded article, we expose the Watchtower’s selective use of evidence and provide compelling proof from ancient artifacts, inscriptions, and scholarly research that affirm the traditional cross of Christ.

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1. Justus Lipsius: Misquoted by the Watchtower

In their 1969 edition of the Kingdom Interlinear Translation, the Watchtower Society included a picture from Justus Lipsius’ 1594 work De Cruce Libri Tres showing a man impaled on a stake. They used an image from page 19 of his book on page 1156 of their work to support their doctrine that Jesus died on a torture stake. However, this was not how Lipsius illustrated Christ’s crucifixion. On page 47 of the same book, Lipsius clearly depicts Jesus on a traditional two-beamed cross, known as a crux immissa (†), consistent with the Christian tradition.

Lipsius did discuss various Roman execution methods, including impalement, but he never suggested Jesus was executed that way. On the contrary, he affirms the form used for Jesus was the common Roman cross with a crossbeam.

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2. Greek and Roman Practices: The Historical Use of Crosses

The Greek word stauros originally meant “stake,” but by the time of Christ and in Roman contexts, it had broadened to mean a cross-shaped instrument of execution. Roman crucifixion practices included several types of crosses:

• Crux Simplex – an upright stake

• Crux Commissa (T-shaped) – vertical stake with a crossbeam on top

• Crux Immissa (†-shaped) – traditional cross with a crossbeam intersecting near the top

Historical accounts, such as those from Roman writers like Seneca, Tacitus, and Josephus, refer to crucifixion using terms that imply a crossbeam, including phrases like “stretching out the arms.” Roman punishment for serious crimes, such as sedition (the charge brought against Jesus), often involved the crux immissa for its public visibility and prolonged suffering.

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3. Archaeological Evidence: Crosses in 1st–2nd Century Christian Art

Thanks to modern archaeology, we now have physical, visual evidence that the cross with a crossbeam was central to the early Christian community—even within the first two centuries of the Church. This directly contradicts the Watchtower’s assertion that the cross symbol was a later invention.

Here are key archaeological finds confirming early Christian use of the traditional cross:

A. Greek Inscription from Beth Loya (Late Roman Period)

• A site in Israel uncovered a Greek inscription that reads: “Jesus Christ is Present.”

• This is not only significant for affirming Jesus’ worship among early believers but is paired with a Chi-Rho cross symbol, which combines the first two letters of “Christ” in Greek (Χ and Ρ).

• This Chi-Rho, shaped like a cross with a crossbeam, was widely used by early Christians as a secret symbol of faith and points to the early use of cross-shaped imagery.

B. 1st–2nd Century Judeo-Christian Synagogue in Nazareth

• Excavations revealed a mosaic floor decorated with numerous cross designs.

• These crosses include Tau-Rho crosses, Jerusalem crosses, and traditional † shapes.

• This proves that early Jewish Christians in Nazareth—within the lifetime or shortly after the Apostles—were using cross symbols in worship and gathering places.

C. Jerusalem Crosses

• Found in multiple 1st–2nd century locations, the Jerusalem Cross (a large cross with four smaller crosses in its quadrants) shows that the shape of the cross was not only known but revered.

• Its symmetrical form reflects theological symbolism of Christ’s dominion over the world and was carved or painted in early Christian settings.

D. Cross Artwork at Beth Shean Ruins, Israel

• At this ancient Roman-Byzantine site in northern Israel, cross motifs are still visible in the architectural remains.

• These were likely part of a Christian community’s structures, again pointing to the prominence of the traditional cross shape in early centuries.

These findings align with research by Dr. Titus Kennedy, an American archaeologist and expert in biblical archaeology, who has documented early Christian symbolism, including inscriptions and artwork, that confirm the cross—not a torture stake—was central to early Christian worship and identity.

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4. Early Church Writings and Symbolism

Early Christian authors and apologists were also clear in their understanding of the cross:

• Justin Martyr (2nd century) repeatedly refers to the cross as a recognizable symbol of Christ’s death, comparing it to objects with crossbeams like sails, plows, and tools.

• Tertullian (c. 160–225 AD) wrote: “In all our travels and movements, at every departure and arrival, at every putting on of shoes, at the bath, at the table, in the lighting of lamps, in lying down, sitting down… we trace upon the forehead the sign [of the cross].”

• The Epistle of Barnabas (late 1st or early 2nd century) interprets Old Testament symbols as referring to the cross, indicating it was understood as part of the earliest Christian theology.

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Conclusion: The Cross of Christ is Historical and Theological Truth

The Watchtower’s rejection of the cross is not supported by historical, linguistic, or archaeological evidence. The misrepresentation of Justus Lipsius’ work, combined with a disregard for early Christian symbolism and Roman crucifixion methods, undermines their credibility.

In contrast, Christian belief that Jesus died on a cross with a crossbeam is supported by:

• The accurate reading of Lipsius’ De Cruce,

• Roman execution practices,

• Greek linguistic development,

• Early Christian writings, and

• Compelling archaeological evidence from Israel itself—where Jesus lived, died, and rose again.

The cross is not a pagan symbol later adopted. It is a historical reality that bore the body of the Son of God, who gave His life for the salvation of mankind.